The Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest in the world, dates back at least 5,000 years. This civilization was partly located in North India and in the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys primarily in Sindh province of Pakistan, extending westward into Balochistan province. Though the civilization was located in the North, the scripts identified at the archaeological site was found to be Proto-Dravidian. Around 1800 BCE, signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned.

Maurya and Gupta Empires

Towards the end of the Iron Age, the Maurya Empire arose from the kingdom of Magadha. By 316 BCE the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander. At its greatest extent under Ashoka the Great, the Empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan and significant portions of what is now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces. The Empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by Emperor Bindusara, but it excluded a small portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga. After the decline of empire around 185 BCE, the Sunga dynasty came to prominence in North India. The Guptas established the next great empire, the Gupta Empire in North India around 320 AD.The time of the Gupta Empire is referred to as Golden Age of India in science, mathematics, astronomy, religion and Indian philosophy. The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors.

Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire ruled most of the Indian subcontinent from the early 16th to the mid-19th centuries, with its capital at Delhi. At the height of its power, around 1700, it controlled most of the subcontinent and parts of what is now Afghanistan. Its population at that time has been estimated as between 110 and 130 million, over a territory of over 4 million km. It reached its height under Akbar the Great, and its power began to decline after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707. The empire rapidly declined after 1725 and was replaced by the Maratha Empire as the pre-eminent power in South Asia.